RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
In the time of Jesus, Judaism had two contrasting institutions around which the religious life of the people was centered: the temple in Jerusalem and the synagogue in the local community. Judaism survived the destruction of the temple in AD 70, largely because it still had the synagogues. These community centers served multiple purposes, not only corporate worship, and contrasted with the temple in several ways. According to Deuteronomy 12:1-14, the nation could have only one legitimate temple, but people could establish synagogues wherever there were 10 adult Jewish males enough to make up a quorum (minyan). A hereditary priesthood from the tribe of Levi ruled the temple, but local leaders belonging to any tribe could govern a synagogue. Only priests could enter the Holy Place and inner courtyard of the temple, but the synagogues were open to anyone, even interested Gentiles. The worship in the temple centered around sacrifices that could only be offered there, but the worship of the synagogues focused on the reading of the Scriptures. Sacrifices were not permitted.
The Greek word synagogē literally means a gathering of people who have been brought together, but before the time of Jesus, it commonly referred to a building where the assembly occurred. It translated the Hebrew beitkennesset, “house of assembly.”Sometimes the building went by the name proseuchē, “a place of prayer.” It was always the most prominent structure in a Jewish town. Even in Gentile cities, the synagogues were often impressive. Archaeologists have found the remains of synagogues not only in Palestine but all over the former territory of the Roman Empire. Among the most impressive remains are those at Sardis, which could accommodate 1,000 people, at Dura-Europas with its walls covered with frescoes of biblical scenes,and at Priene in Ionia. The one on the island of Delos, like those at Dura-Europas and Priene, were modified and renovated houses. Even where traces of the buildings themselves no longer exist, inscriptions have survived, such as a door lintel with the words, “Synagogue of the Jews.” Evidence indicates a synagogue in Egypt dating to the third century BC. More than 300 inscriptions belonging to synagogues in the Diaspora have been found.
In Israel, several synagogues date from the Second Temple period: at Gamla, Masada, Herodium, and a more recent discovery at Magdala. Jesus may have even visited the Magdala one. The white limestone synagogue at Capernaum attracts tourists to Israel. Though the beautiful building probably dates from the fourth century AD, it was erected over the foundation of an earlier black basalt synagogue, doubtless, the one where Jesus taught (Mark 1:21, etc.). Although archaeologists have found many synagogues dating from later centuries, it is hard to say whether their features reflect those of earlier ones that have not survived. They had no standard floor plan and were not always oriented in the same direction, even though the people always prayed facing Jerusalem.
After the destruction of AD 70, synagogue builders introduced some features reminiscent of the temple. The assembly room had a platform, the bimah, from which reading and speaking took place. At some point, synagogues began to have a shrine to house the Torah scrolls, but during the time of Jesus, the scrolls were brought into the room for the service but not kept there. Some synagogues had a marble throne from which a leader would expound the Torah (cf. Matt. 23:2). Artwork of various kinds would embellish the interior, the most common motif being the Menorah. One curious feature of several Palestinian synagogues (for example, at Beth Alpha) was a mosaic on the floor depicting the sun and the signs of the Zodiac.
No one knows when synagogues originated. The Old Testament does not mention them (unless it be in an enigmatic statement in Psalm 74:8). The best guess is that they arose during the Exile or shortly afterward and served Jewish communities in many ways. They could house a reading room and a school or provide space for a town hall meeting or a law court as well as serve as a regular venue for Sabbath worship and common prayers and study on Monday and Thursday, the days the Pharisees fasted (cf. Luke 18:12).
The synagogue service consisted of three main parts (cf.m.Megillah 4). The first was the recitation of the Shema, the words of Deuteronomy 6:4-9, 11:13-21, and Numbers 15:37-41. Some evidence suggests that the Shema originally also included the Decalogue but was dropped toward the end of the first century. The Jerusalem Talmud says, “ It used to be proper to recite the Ten Commandments every day. Why then do they not recite them now? Because of the claim of the Minim [heretics]: so that they may not say, Only these were given to Moses on Sinai”(y.Berachoth1, 3c; cf. m.Tamid 5:1).
The second part was the ‘Amidah, the standing prayer, also called the Shemoneh ‘Esreh, or “eighteen benedictions.” The congregation stood and faced toward Jerusalem, and a leader repeated eighteen short prayers (seven on Sabbaths) with responses from the congregation.
The third part was the reading and exposition of Scripture. In the time of Jesus, in Israel, the synagogue leaders would publicly read through the five books of Moses every three years, but somewhat later, they adopted the Babylonian Jewish practice of going them through in one year. An oral translation into Aramaic, called a targum, would follow each section that was read because many ordinary people in the congregation did not understand Hebrew. In the Diaspora, the translation was doubtless in Greek. Then would come a reading of selections from the Prophets. If a teacher were present, he would deliver a sermon based on the reading for the day. The custom was to stand to read and sit to preach (Luke 4:16, 20). Should a priest be among the assembly, he would close the service with a benediction or a blessing upon the people (cf. Num. 6:24-26). Otherwise, a layperson would offer a closing prayer.
The Jewish synagogue service was the ancestor of Christian and Moslem corporate worship, just as the synagogue building was the predecessor of churches and mosques. The concept was something new in the history of religion. Never before had there been regular weekly corporate worship. It was the venue in which Jesus did much of His teaching, and wherever Paul went, he always began his preaching first in the local synagogue. The synagogue was the preserver of Judaism, but also, in the plan of God, it was the seedbed where the gospel was first planted.