Gerhard Pfandl and Ángel M. Rodríguez
More than one-third of the OT is poetry. Most of it appears in the book of Psalms, in the wisdom literature (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes), and in the prophetic books. Isaiah is written almost entirely in poetic form. A number of poetic sections are also found in the historical books, e.g., Gen-esis 49 and Numbers 23 and 24. Only seven OT books have no poetry at all (Leviticus, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Haggai, and Malachi). Thus, it is important to understand Hebrew poetry in order to interpret large por-tions of the OT correctly.
The modern study of Hebrew poetry began in 1753 with the publication of Bishop Robert Lowth’s book De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum. He believed that Hebrew poetry had a real meter, but that it was difficult to rec-ognize because knowledge of how classical Hebrew was spoken had died out. Therefore, he focused on the chief characteristic of Hebrew poetry, which he labeled parallelismus membrorum (parallelism of members).
Bishop Lowth explained parallelism as follows:
The correspondence of one verse or line with another, I call parallelism. When a proposition is delivered, and a second is subjoined to it, or drawn under it, equivalent, or contrasted with it in sense, or similar to it in the form of grammatical construction, these I call parallel lines; and the words or phrases, answering one to another in corresponding lines, parallel terms.1
Lowth distinguished between three basic types of parallelism: synonymous, antithetic, and synthetic, a division still in use today.
Synonymous Parallelism—The thought of the first line is repeated in the second line in different words:
Prov 1:20 Wisdom calls aloud outside;
She raises her voice in the open square.
Isa 2:17 The loftiness of man shall be bowed down,
And the haughtiness of men shall be brought low.
Antithetic Parallelism—The second line contrasts, or negates, the thought and the meaning of the first line. Frequently, the second line is introduced with “but.”
Prov 14:30 A sound heart is life to the body,
But envy is rottenness to the bones.
Prov 16:25 There is a way that seems right to a man,
But its end is the way of death.
Synthetic or Formal Parallelism—This parallelism is not as clear as the other two. Basically, the second line develops or completes the thought of the first line.
Ps 28:6 Blessed be the Lord,
Because he has heard the voice of my supplications!
Here the first line makes a statement, and the second line provides the reason.
Ps 119:9 How can a young man cleanse his way?
By taking heed according to Your word.
The first line asks a question; the second line provides the answer.
Since Lowth’s work on Hebrew parallelism, additional types of parallelism have been identified. For example, in Emblematic Parallelism, one line uses a metaphor or simile, while the balancing line makes a factual statement:
Ps 42:1 As the deer pants for the water brooks,
So pants my soul for You, O God.
Climactic or Stairlike Parallelism repeats and advances the message in successive steps. The thought appears to ascend in three or more steps:
Ps 29:1-2 Give unto the LORD, O you mighty ones,
Give unto the LORD glory and strength.
Give unto the LORD the glory due to His name;
Worship the LORD in the beauty of holiness.
Chiastic Parallelism2 inverts the words or thoughts in successive lines. Thus, what was first in the first line appears last in the second line:
Ps 30:8 I cried out to you, O LORD;
And to the LORD I made supplication:
Several psalms are composed in an acrostic pattern in which the initial letter of each verse or set of verses follows the order of the Hebrew alphabet. Thus, in Psalm 34 the first verse begins with the Hebrew letter aleph, the second with the letter beth, the third with the letter gimmel, etc. In Lamentations 3 not one but three lines are assigned to each letter, i.e., the first three verses all begin with aleph, the next three verses all begin with beth, the next three with gimmel, etc. In Psalm 119, eight verses always begin with the same Hebrew letter, and since the number of Hebrew letters is 22, the psalm has 176 verses. The acrostic form may have been an aid for memorization.
Hebrew poetry is rich in the use of imagery and figures of speech, but it is also very elliptic; i.e., it drops out nouns and verbs in parallel lines and rarely uses conjunctions (and, but), temporal indicators (when, then), or logical connectors (thus, therefore).3
1. Figures of Comparison
Simile—A figure of speech in which two essentially unlike things are compared by the use of an introductory “like” or “as.” Psalm 42:1 “As the deer pants for the water brooks, so pants my soul for You, O God.” A simile is the most easily recognizable figure of speech.
Metaphor—In a metaphor the writer describes one thing in terms of another. The comparison is merely implied. Psalm 18:2 “The LORD is my rock and my fortress and my deliverer; My God, my strength, in whom I will trust; My shield and the horn of my salvation, my stronghold.” God was to David as the strength of the rock and the cover of a shield providing him with protection from his enemies.
Parable—An extended simile becomes a parable. It is a short story that teaches a lesson by comparison. God’s parable in Isaiah 5:1-5 describes God’s disappointment with the vineyard that brought forth only wild or sour grapes. The main point of comparison is recognized at the end of the story, “For the vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the house of Israel.”
Allegory—An extended metaphor becomes an allegory. In the allegory of Proverbs 5:15-23, the main point is marital fidelity. “The comparison that is drawn there is between the practice of drinking water from one’s own well and the need for being faithful in the conjugal responsibilities and privileges of marriage.”4
2. Figures of Fullness of Expression
Paronomasia—Paronomasia is a word play in which words with similar sound but not necessarily similar meaning are repeated. For example, Proverbs 11:18 says, “The wicked man does deceptive (šāqer) work, But he who sows righteousness will have a sure reward (śeker). The sounds of the word “deceptive” and “reward” (šāqer and śeker) are similar but their meaning is not. See also the similarity of the words for “trouble” (ṣārāh) and “small” (ṣar) in Proverbs 24:10. This literary effect is usually lost in translation.
Hyperbole—This is a conscious exaggeration or overstatement, e.g., Psalm 78:27, “He also rained meat on them like the dust, Feathered fowl like the sand of the seas.” This text is part of a graphic poetic account of the miracle of the quails. To emphasize the showers of God’s blessings, the number of quails is compared to the sand of the sea.
3. Figures of Association
Metonymy—In this figure of speech an idea is evoked or named by means of a word that refers to some associated notion. Psalm 47:8, “God reigns over the nations; God sits on His holy throne.” God’s throne stands for His reign.
Synecdoche—A figure of speech in which the whole can be put for a part or a part for the whole. Psalm 26:10, “In whose hands is a sinister scheme, and whose right hand is full of bribes.” The right hand as part of the body stands for the whole person.
When dealing with figures of comparison, association, or fullness, the interpreter must be careful not to press them beyond what the author had originally intended. “Figures of speech are not as precise in their meanings as prose is. What these figures lack in precision, however, is surely made up for in their increased ability to draw pictures for us and to give a vividness that ordinary prose cannot.”5
Hebrew poetry had its origin in the life of the people. However, it was not recreational but functional. It played an important role in the life of the nation of Israel, particularly in its relationship with God. Therefore, the prophetic messages were frequently given in poetic form. Not only were they more easily remembered, but they were also more emotive and powerful in their message.
War Songs—War songs were one of the earliest forms of poetry (Judg 7:18, 20). The best known are the victory songs of Moses (Ex 15:1-18) and Deborah (Judg 5). They usually dwell rapturously on the power of God, who defeated the enemy.
Love Songs—The most famous love song in Scripture is the book Song of Solomon. Another poetic expression of human love is found in Ruth 1:16-17, in which Ruth utters some of the most memorable words in all of Scripture.
Laments—The lament, an anguished cry to God, is the most common poetic form in the psalms. More than sixty psalms are either individual (Ps 3) or corporate laments (Ps 9). Generally, a lament has several, or all of the following, elements: (a) The address to God: Psalm 22:1, “My God, My God.” (b) A description of distress: Psalm 57:4, “My soul is among lions; I lie among the sons of men who are set on fire, whose teeth are spears and arrows.” (c) A plea for deliverance: Psalm 3:7, “Arise, O LORD; Save me, O my God!” (d) A statement of trust in God: Psalm 28:7, “The LORD is my strength and my shield; My heart trusted in Him.” (e) A confession of sin: Psalm 51:4, “Against You, You only, have I sinned, And done this evil in Your sight.” (f) A vow to do certain things: Psalm 61:5, “For You, O God, have heard my vows.” (g) A conclusion, which may be in the form of praise or thanks: Psalm 30:12, “O LORD my God, I will give thanks to You forever.”
Hymns—Hymns, or praise songs, were used in the worship of God. Scholars have identified three specific types of hymns in which God is praised as: (a) Creator (Pss 8, 19, 104, 148), (b) Protector of Israel (66, 100, 111, 114), and (c) Lord of history (33, 103, 105-106, 135).7 In addition, there are thanksgiving hymns that express gratitude to God for His answer to specific prayers (Pss 18, 30, 32, 65, 67).
Imprecatory Psalms—These are usually lament psalms in which the writer’s desire for vindication, based on the principle of retribution, the lex talionis, are especially prominent (Pss 12, 35, 52, 58-59, 69, 70, 83, 109, 137). Frequently, statements in these psalms are shocking to modern ears, “Happy the one who takes and dashes your little ones against the rock!” (Ps 137:9). However, it needs to be remembered that the thought behind the desire for vengeance is biblical (Deut 32:35, “Vengeance is Mine,”); how it is expressed is human. “Some of the language comes from the covenant curses… . In other cases concepts and phraseology seem to be taken from or point to some divine punitive activity within history against sinners.”8 Hyperbolic language is common in such emotional passages.
Poetry calls for a different hermeneutical approach from that used in narrative. Narrative brings information and teaches by illustration; poetry makes room for a freer expression of inspiration. Here are some basic guidelines to interpret Hebrew poetry.
1. Take Note of the Pattern of the Poem or of the Hymn—The primary element of Hebrew poetry is the pattern of parallel lines as indicated above.
2. Group Parallel Lines—Since the poet is using very emotive, colorful language, the interpreter must walk a fine line between reading too much into individual lines and assuming synonymity whenever the thoughts are similar. The context must indicate whether or not the clauses are synonymous.
3. Study the Metaphorical Language—In Hebrew poetry, figurative language is predominant and more difficult to understand than prose. Job 38 and Psalm 19 are not meant to teach Hebrew cosmology; nor does the statement “I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, from whence cometh my help” (Ps 121:1, KJV) mean that God lives on the hills. Nevertheless, the background to such imagery adds richness and depth to the understanding of these passages.
4. Where Possible, Note the Historical Background to the Text—In the book of Psalms, the titles of fourteen psalms (3, 7, 18, 30, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142) provide some historical references. While scholars have debated the authenticity of these titles, there is little reason to doubt the basic trustworthiness of the titles, though they are not necessarily inspired. Commentaries and dictionaries are helpful in illuminating the background to these psalms.
5. Study the Poetic Texts in Terms of Their Type and Basic Stance— An imprecatory psalm needs to be studied differently from a praise psalm.9 Statements about God’s relationship to people in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes differ from type to type (proverbs, didactic or experiential sayings, etc.), and the applicability to present circumstances changes accordingly.
6. Study Poetic Passages as a Whole Before Drawing Conclusions—After noting the basic structure of a poem and studying the details, the interpreter needs to take note of the whole passage before explaining its meaning.
7. Study Messianic Psalms in Terms of Their Historical Significance—From the perspective of the NT writers, many psalms were interpreted as Messianic psalms; their words were quoted with specific reference to Jesus (Pss 2, 22, 110). However, in ancient Israel, with the exception of Psalm 110, these psalms were not viewed as referring directly to the Messiah; they had a historical meaning at the time they were written. These psalms, therefore, must first be studied to determine the author’s original intended meaning before they are applied to the Messiah. Yet, beyond the historical meaning they “provide verbal indicators that identify the typological nature of these psalms.”10 In Psalm 22, for example, many features far transcend the actual experiences of David. They can be understood fully only in the context of Jesus’ suffering.
In the interpretation of the poetic portions of Scripture, the final word should not be technical but devotional, presenting to the hearers the wonders of God’s ways with man and His grace in the plan of redemption.