Gerhard Pfandl and Ángel M. Rodríguez
In addition to the guidelines for the interpretation of Hebrew poetry, an understanding of the special characteristics of Hebrew wisdom literature will be of benefit. The title “Wisdom Literature” is used by biblical scholars to designate the books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. Catho-lic scholarship includes the apocryphal books Ecclesiasticus (Ben Sirach) and the Wisdom of Solomon. Some scholars also include some psalms, usually called Wisdom Psalms (Pss 1; 32; 34; 37; 49; 73; 112; 127; 128; and 133) under the wisdom genre. With respect to the Song of Solomon, there are different opinions, but many biblical students would argue that even though the book is, or seems to be, a collection of love poems, it probably was preserved by the Israelite sages.
In interpretating the wisdom literature, it is important to have a basic understanding of the biblical approach to wisdom. Here we can make only a few general remarks that hopefully will encourage the reader to study the books themselves to gain a better understanding of the intellectual world of the wisdom thinkers. Biblical wisdom is interested in the relationship between nature and humans and in the social life of human beings. Wisdom literature illustrates the Hebrew interest in nature and in the use of the human mind to study it (1 Kgs 4:33). The wise persons also examined human conduct and learned from those observations how to enjoy life. They discovered the value of proper language in social interaction, the importance of work, and the risks and the dangers involved in improper social relationships.
The motivation and the purpose for the study of nature and human beings was significantly different from that of modern scientific research. The Israelites presupposed that the Lord was their Creator and that the natural world was also the result of God’s creative activity. The goal of exploring nature was not to uncover the origin of its existence but to observe and understand the power and wisdom of the Creator.
The Israelites believed that the wisdom of their Creator and Redeemer was mediated to them, not just through the words of the prophets but also through creation. The wise persons, therefore, spent time exploring God’s creation in order to apprehend that wisdom. But wisdom was at the same time a gift from God: “For the LORD gives wisdom; From his mouth come knowledge and understanding” (Prov 2:6).
The acquisition of wisdom was preceded by the “fear [reverence] of the LORD” (Prov 1:7). This did not mean that fear/reverence was the main element in the acquisition of wisdom. It meant that the fear of the Lord was the sphere within which it was possible to obtain wisdom. Once that presupposition was accepted, the wise person went out in search for wisdom. How was this done? By using basically the same principles we use today. They observed the natural world and the social interaction of human beings, analyzed what they observed, and drew conclusions that impacted the quality of their lives (Prov 24:30-34). In other words, they used the rational abilities that God had given them and obeyed His command to explore the intelligibility of the created world. In the process of analysis, they also discovered the limitations of wisdom. What we find in the wisdom books of the OT is the result of that search for wisdom.
What is a proverb? The term proverb is difficult to define. The Hebrew term māšāl (“saying,” “song,”) has a broad range of meanings, making it somewhat imprecise for a valid definition. The Hebrew verbal root “seems to indicate comparison, a meaning that is illustrated, implicitly or explicitly, in very many of the sayings of the book.”11 We perhaps could say that a proverb compares, contrasts, points to similar or dissimilar elements, expressing ideas in popular sayings that contain an explicit or implicit teaching. Such proverbs were very much a part of daily life as 1 Samuel 10:12 and 24:13 indicate. In general the book of Proverbs has a very high view of the role and of the importance of wisdom in human existence, without denying some of its limitations. Widsom, a divine characteristic, is personified in the book as a being who interacts with human beings. In 1:20-33; 8:1-3; 9:1-6, 13-18, she (wisdom) is set in opposition to a “foolish woman.” In other places, wisdom’s activities closely parallel those of Yahweh. Both pour out the Spirit (Prov 1:23; Isa 44:3); both called Israel, but it refused to answer (Prov 1:24; Isa 66:4); both promote justice (Prov 8:15; Isa 11:4, 5); etc. Wisdom is the essence of the being of God.
Proverbs is written in poetic form; therefore, the principles used in the interpretation of poetry also apply to the study of this book. Apart from that, the interpretation of Proverbs could be facilitated by taking into consideration the following suggestions:
First, one should become acquainted with the structure of the book. It is formed by several collections of proverbs from different individuals, written at different historical periods.
1:1–9:18 Proverbs of Solomon
1:1-7 Title and Introduction
1:8–9:18 Main Text
10:1–22:16 Proverbs of Solomon
10:1 Title
10:2–22:16 Main Text
22:17–24:22 Words of the Wise Men
22:17-21 Introduction
22:22–24:22 Main Text
24:23-34 More Words of the Wise Men
24:23a Title
23:23b-34 Main Text
25:1–29:27 Proverbs of Solomon Copied by the Men of Hezekiah
25:1 Title
25:2–29:27 Main Text
30:1-33 Words of Agur
30:1 Title
30:3-33 Main Text
31:1-9 Words of Lemuel
31:1 Title
31:2-9 Main Text
31:10-31 Acrostic Poem to the “Good Wife”
This outline is useful if one is interested in comparing the contribution of each collection to a particular subject. It is intriguing to find two collections of proverbs from individuals who may not have been Israelites (Agur and Lemuel). How did their proverbs find a place in the book? The most logical suggestion is that the Lord guided the prophet in the selection of that material, because it contained truths compatible with God’s revealed will for Israel.
Second, most of the proverbs are single units of meaning without an immediate context that could help us to interpret them. In many cases, the meaning of the proverb is clear, but, in other cases, it is difficult to ascertain its significance. However, it is useful to get acquainted with the cultural context of the writer in order to be able to gain a better understanding of the images used in phrasing the proverbs.
Third, since the purpose of the book of Proverbs is clearly given, the interpreter should pay particular attention to it and use it as a hermeneutical key. In the prolog of the book, Solomon lists a series of goals that he is trying to achieve through the collection (1:2-6). But the ultimate purpose of the search for wisdom is summarized in 8:33-36. Wisdom is so important, because “whoever finds me finds life … , all those who hate me love death.” The fundamental issue is one of life and death. The centrality of that aspect is such that wisdom is described as “a tree of life” (3:18). This insight, together with the prolog should guide the interpreter in the reading of the book.
Fourth, knowing a little about the different literary forms used in Proverbs will be of help to the interpreter. As the title suggests, the most common form is the proverb or saying pattern. Proverbs usually are a description or statement about something with a particular wisdom twist (e.g., 12:5; 26:1). We have many different types of sayings, among them numerical sayings to indicate that a list of items is not complete (e.g., 30:7, 15); better-than sayings, to reveal the superior value of a particular situation or conduct over the other option (e.g., 12:9; 16:8); and the comparative saying, employed to discourage a particular action (26:8).
Another literary form are the admonitions. They can contain a command to do something (e.g., 3:1; 6:6) or a prohibition not to do something (e.g., 22:24; 23:6), and, in some cases, the two are combined into one (e.g., 1:8). We also find autobiographical accounts that contain moral lessons or teachings (e.g., 4:3-9; 24:30-34). Being aware of what the biblical writer is doing will help the interpreter to understand what is being said.
Fifth, the book of Proverbs can be studied by using different approaches. One can study passages in which there is a group of proverbs addressing the same issue. That facilitates the study of a particular topic (e.g., the value of wisdom [2:1–4:27; 8:1–9:18]; poverty [24:30-34]). But in most cases, proverbs dealing with the same subject are found in different places throughout the book. In those cases, it is better to group the passages for careful study in order to find out what the book teaches about a particular topic. This can be done by subject areas, such as prayer, hatred, wickedness, righteousness, etc., or by studying the characters mentioned in the book (e.g., the righteous, the wicked, the wise, the fool, the scoffer, the sluggard, the seductress).
The book of Job is considered by some to be one of the greatest literary works of humanity. The events it describes belong to pre-Mosaic days, but according to an early Jewish tradition, they were written down by Moses. The beauty of the language, its literary style, and its theological content single it out as a unique book within the Bible itself. Surprisingly, as far as we know, none of the protagonists are Israelites, even though they worship the Lord (e.g., 12:9). It is a wisdom book in the form of a narrative, making its reading more interesting. It is a discussion of human suffering as it is being experienced by Job, the main character of the book. In the discussion the most disturbing question concerns the role of God in the experience of Job. It is there that the issue of the value and of the role of wisdom poignantly surfaces. Does wisdom provide an answer to the suffering of the innocent?
With the exception of the prolog and the epilog, the rest of the book is written in poetry. In addition to the principles for the interpretation of poetry discussed above, the following suggestions should be helpful in the interpretation of the book:
First, the book primarily consists of dialogs between Job and his friends and between God and Job. This dialogical nature of the document will assist the reader in following the flow of ideas and in determining whether or not there is progression in the arguments leading to a resolution of the theological plot.
Second, the dialog is formed by the following three cycles introduced by a speech of Job (chapter 3):
First Cycle
Eliphaz’s Speech Job 4–5
Job’s Response Job 6–7
Bildad’s Speech Job 8
Job’s Response Job 9–10
Zophar’s Speech Job 11
Job’s Response Job 12–14
Second Cycle
Eliphaz’s Speech Job 15
Job’s Response Job 16–17
Bildad’s Speech Job 18
Job’s Response Job 19
Zophar’s Speech Job 20
Job’s Response Job 21
Third Cycle
Eliphaz’s Speech Job 22
Job’s Response Job 23–24
Bildad’s Speech Job 25
Job’s Response Job 26–27
This organization is useful to the interpreter in at least two ways: (a) By reading all the speeches of each of Job’s friends in one sitting, one is able to understand their arguments better. Reading all of Job’s responses in the same way will also facilitate the comprehension of what he is saying, as well as the intensity of his psychological, theological, and spiritual pain. (b) If the speeches are read in the order given in the text one will be able to establish more clearly the areas of agreements and of disagreements between Job and his friends.
Third, the interpretation of Job 29:1–31:40 is important for the understanding of the book. This monolog seems to precipitate the “resolution” of the plot in the book. In chapter 31, Job appears to pronounce an oath of innocence. If this is correct, it means that Job is demanding that God present the evidence He has against him or otherwise exonerate him from any charges. This is the climax of Job’s defense; from that point on he remains silent, waiting for God to speak.
Fourth, trying to establish the purpose of the speech by the young man Elihu may be a difficult task, but one worth pursuing. All other speeches have ended; Job is silent, waiting for the Lord to intervene, and unexpectedly Elihu speaks up. What does this mean? Is he speaking for God? Is he defending Him?
Fifth, it is useful to observe that the last part of the book is another dialog, this time between God and Job: God’s first speech (Job 38:1–40:2); Job’s response (40:3-5); God’s second speech (40:6–41:34); Job’s response (42:1-6). This is one of the most challenging and interesting sections of the book. Does God answer all the questions or even some of the questions raised in the dialogs between Job and his friends? Why is God’s creative and sustaining power emphasized so much? Is that God’s way of dealing with Job’s claim of innocence? What is the purpose of the description of the behemoth and the leviathan? Is there a progression of ideas in Job’s responses to the divine speeches?
Sixth, the prolog and the epilog constitute the proper theological perspective for the understanding of some of the basic issues raised in the book. The interpreter should pay close attention to their content. The mystery of suffering is not totally solved, but, by placing it in a cosmic perspective, certain new insights are provided, and the limits of human wisdom are revealed.
In Ecclesiastes 1:1, the author identifies himself as the son of David, king in Jerusalem. The traditional view, therefore, accepted by Jewish and Christian scholars alike, has been that Solomon wrote the book in its entirety. While the book sounds rather pessimistic in places, it needs to be remembered that the basic purpose of the book is to demonstrate that, apart from God, life lacks any ultimate meaning and amounts to no more than vanity.
The history of the interpretation of Ecclesiastes reveals a diversity of views concerning its message. Many consider the book to contain a very pessimistic view of life that usually leads one to consider humans as victims of events out of their control. Others have concluded that the book is fundamentally agnostic—that it promotes the idea that it is impossible to understand what takes place under the sun. Most would argue that the author of the book is not a true agnostic in that he makes specific affirmations about God, but he rejects the possibility of gaining a true understanding of human existence.
The book Ecclesiastes is indeed difficult to interpret. There are elements of pessimism, skepticism, and even some aspects of agnosticism in the book. The following suggestions will be useful in interpreting the book.
First, the primary purpose of the book is mentioned in 12:9: “Not only was the teacher wise, but also he imparted knowledge to the people” (NIV). The book has a pedagogical or didactic function. Like all wisdom books, it attempts to summarize the findings of the wise person in order to instruct others and to make them wise. This means that the book is not a rejection of the value of wisdom for human existence. It may question the ultimate value of human wisdom, but it does not promote folly.
Second, one should place the book within the Israelite wisdom theology. In other words, it must not be interpret in isolation from the other wisdom books. They provide the proper context for its interpretation.
Third, although scholars have not been able to agree on the outline of the literary structure of the book, it is clear that some sections are grouped thematically. This is helpful for the interpreter. For example, in 1:4-11, the cosmos is studied and the conclusion is drawn that there is nothing new under the sun. In chapter 2, we find autobiographical materials describing the wise person’s search for meaning in joy, work, wisdom, and toil. The conclusion of the section is that all is meaningless.
Fourth, particular attention needs to be paid to subjects that are addressed several times in the book. For example, the expression “Vanity of vanities” or “Meaningless! Meaningless! … Everything is meaningless” (NIV) appears at the beginning and at the end of the book (1:2; 12:8). In the Hebrew language, repetition was used to express the superlative—“absolute vanity!” Anything human beings may seek in place of God is absolute vanity, according to the Preacher.
Fifth, in order to place the book in its proper theological perspective the reader should pay particular attention to the epilog (12:9-14). The voice that we hear there is the voice of the narrator summarizing the fundamental message of the book for the reader. That is precisely what makes the epilog so important for the interpreter. It makes clear that pessimism is not the ultimate message of the book. Certainly “everything is meaningless,” but there is more to life than simply trying to find its present significance. The interpreter should carefully explore the contribution of the epilog to the message and to the theology of the book: What is that contribution? In what sense does it set limits to the content of the rest of the book? What is its significance for a Christian reading of the book?
The history of the interpretation of this book, which in the opening verse is attributed to king Solomon, reveals a great deal of confusion that should alert the reader to the complexity of the interpretational task. The most common approach has been to treat it as an allegory (see chapter 13). Primarily, because the book appears to be quite secular, even erotic. The allegorical approach looks for meanings in a text beyond the literal sense of the language. In the case of the book Song of Solomon, it is understood to be nonhistorical but containing deep spiritual truths. Using the allegorical method, Jewish interpreters concluded that the male figure in the poems was the Lord and the Shulamite girl was Israel. Others saw in the experience of the man and the woman the way that wisdom and the student of wisdom should relate to each other. Among Christians, the book has been read as a description of the relationship between Christ and the church. That is, its spiritual value has been decoded through the allegorical approach. This raises the question whether the text itself is suggesting this approach and whether, in spite of the apparent secular dimension of the text, there is a theological concern, or message, in the book.
There is no indication in Scripture that the book is an allegory. Neither Jesus nor any of the NT writers ever referred to it; but this does not mean that this love song does not have some spiritual value. Scripture repeatedly illustrates the union between God and His people by the relationship of a husband to his bride (Isa 54:4, 5; Jer 3:14; 2 Cor 11:2), and Ellen G. White, on occasion, used passages from the book to illustrate spiritual truths12; but this does not mean that she considered the book to be an allegory or that she used the allegorical method to interpret it.
How should the book be interpreted? First, the book should be read many times. One of the most obvious things that the interpreter will realize is the fact that we are dealing here with love poetry. Second, the poems are primarily spoken by two individuals, namely a woman (e.g., Song 1:2) and a man (e.g., 4:1-2). There are references to the daughters of Jerusalem, but they do not seem to play any active role in the book (e.g., 1:5). Third, the book is characterized by dialogs (e.g., 1:7-8; 15-16; 8:13-14) and monologs (e.g., 3:1-5; 6:4-10). Their study is useful in understanding the nature of the poems.
Fourth, particular attention needs to be paid to the language that is used so that the poems can be interpreted within the cultural context in which they were written. This means the interpreter should have access to commentaries or biblical dictionaries that will provide that information. Using a concordance is probably the best way to understand the particular terminology used in the book. Sometimes it is difficult to understand the point being made through a comparison. For instance, the man says, “Your two breasts are like two fawns, twins of a gazelle which feed among the lilies” (Song 4:5, NASB). A possible interpretation of this comparison sees the gazelles as “symbols of life and renewal.”13 The fawns add to the image elements of softness and playfulness. O. Keel says, “Hebrew literature does not attach notions of form to the term ‘breasts’ but notions of blessing (Gen 49:25), of kindness, nourishment, and trust building (Ps 22:9; Job 3:12), of softness, warm security … in short, notions of full participation in life and of life’s renewal.”14 This means that “both breasts and fawns of a gazelle symbolize the warmth of life, an inspiring and victorious counterforce to death.”15
Fifth, notice should be taken of the freedom with which the biblical writer speaks about sexual matters. This reveals to the interpreter the way in which the Bible looks at sex and sexual relations. Sixth, the fundamental intention or message of the poems needs to be investigated. This can be done by paying particular attention to what is emphasized in the book through repetitions. Such repeated ideas as love, marriage, longing for the other, and the references to the garden will be helpful in the formulation and in the development of the theology of the book.
In the interpretation of Psalms and of the wisdom literature in Scripture, we need to use the same principles we use in other parts of Scripture—linguistic and contextual analysis and background studies concerning the text or passage. In addition, it will be of help if the interpreter has a good grasp of the special characteristics of Hebrew poetry and of the concept of wisdom in the OT.
When reading the wisdom literature we need to remember that it teaches rational living, which, at the same time, is good and godly living. And it teaches how when troubles come the wise can bear it. Hence, common sense and sound judgment will help the interpreter to understand what God is saying through these poetic portions of Scripture.
Unless otherwise noted, biblical quotations are from the New King James version.
1 Robert Lowth, De sacra poesi Hebraeorum praelectiones academicae (Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrew) (Oxford: Clarendon, 1753), quoted in Walter Kaiser and Moises Silva, An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994), p. 88.
2 Named after the Greek letter chi (X). It refers to the inversion of related elements within parallel constructions.
3 Kaiser and Silva, p. 91.
4 Ibid., p. 94.
5 Ibid., p. 98.
6 The next two sections are indebted to material found in Grant R. Osborne, The Hermeneutical Spiral (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1991), pp. 181-185, 187-190.
7 Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1981), 176-177.
8 Ángel M. Rodríguez, “Inspiration and the Imprecatory Psalms,” JATS 5.1 (1994): 57.
9 See Rodríguez, 57-58.
10 Richard M. Davidson, “New Testament Use of the Old Testament,” JATS 5.1 (1994): 23.
11 Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998), xxii.
12 In the book Education (p. 261) Ellen G. White illustrates the need for a personal relationship with Jesus by quoting Song of Solomon 2:3-4; and repeatedly she refers to Jesus as “the ‘the chiefest among ten thousand,’ the One ‘altogether lovely.’ Song of Solomon 5:10, 16.” (6T 175; Ev 186).
13 Othmar Keel, Song of Songs (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1994), p. 150.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
Clements, Ronald E. Wisdom Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1992.
Hartley, John E. The Book of Job. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988.
Kaiser, Walter and Silva, Moises. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994.
Keel, Othmar. Song of Songs. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1994.
Kidner, Derek. An Introduction to Wisdom Literature: The Wisdom of Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1985.
Longman, Tremper, III. The Book of Ecclesiastes. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998.
Murphy, Roland E. The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996.
_________. Proverbs. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998.
Osborne, Grant R. The Hermeneutical Spiral. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1991.
Weiser, Artur. The Psalms. The Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1962.