Persia appears first in historical records of the seventh century BC as an area on the northeastern coast of the Persian Gulf, bounded on the east by Carmania, on the north by Media, and on the west by Susiania (Elam). Phraortes (c. 647-c. 625 BC) one of the earliest Median kings known, receives credit for having subjugated the Persian tribes, and from that time until the time of Cyrus the Great, Persia formed part of the Median kingdom, although the ruler of the Persians continued to bear the title “king of Anshan.” Anshan was the territory of ancient Elam which the Persians conquered.
Persian history actually begins with Cyrus the Great (c. 553-530 BC). Although history knows of four generations of his royal ancestors, no records or traditions about their rule have survived. Achaemenes, the great-great-grandfather of Cyrus, as well as an ancestor of Darius through a different line, was considered the founder of the dynasty.
Cyrus, whose mother and wife were said to have belonged to the royal house of the Medes, rose against his grandfather Astyages, the last Median king, and took possession of his territory. After consolidating his rule over the whole kingdom, he conquered Lydia (547 BC) and Babylonia (539 BC), thus becoming the founder of an empire that was greater than any that had previously existed. Cyrus was tolerant of other religions and particularly favored peoples previously subjugated by the Babylonians, restoring their temples and modes of worship and allowing exiles to return to their homelands. Among those who profited by such favorable policies were the Jews, who received permission to return to Palestine and rebuild their Temple in Jerusalem (2 Chron. 36:22, 23; Ezra 1:1-11; 6:2-5).
Cambyses (530-522 BC), a ruler not mentioned in the Bible, followed his father on the throne. His major accomplishment was the conquest of Egypt (525 BC). He stayed in that country for three years and organized the Nile valley into a strong Persian satrapy. However, before he left for Egypt, he had his brother Bardiya (called Smerdis by the Greeks) slain for fear that he would attempt to seize the throne. In 522 BC, while Cambyses was still in Egypt, Gaumata, a Median Magian, claimed to be Bardiya (Smerdis) and usurped the throne (Magians were not magicians but expert in Iranian religious traditions). Cambyses hurried back to Persia but died on the way home, either by his own hand or as the result of an accident. He left no heir.
Darius, a distant relative, now rose to claim the kingship (522-486 BC). He slew Bardiya, the pretender after the latter had reigned only about six months. However, Darius had to fight several other claimants to the throne before he became the undisputed ruler of the Persian Empire. Once on the throne, Darius I proved to be a strong monarch and a great organizer. During the early years of his reign, the Jews, who had encountered opposition to their attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem after the time of Cyrus, finally completed the project without interference under an extremely favorable decree issued by Darius (Ezra 4:24–6:15). Military disasters in his wars against the Greeks clouded Darius’ later years.
Xerxes I, the son of Darius I, was a weak ruler compared to his father, and suffered several heavy defeats in Greece, although he was successful in suppressing revolts in Egypt and Babylonia. He also partly destroyed Babylon after a second uprising there against his rule. Thus he had a part in fulfilling the prophecies concerning Babylon’s fate made long before by Isaiah and Jeremiah (see Isa. 13:17-22; Jer. 50:9-16). The Bible refers to Xerxes by the name of Ahasuerus.
Artaxerxes I (465-423 BC), Xerxes’ son, took the throne upon his father’s assassination. He was erratic like his father, and loved pleasure and power but managed to rule for more than four decades, mainly because his brother-in-law, Megabyzos, suppressed an Egyptian rebellion for him, and kept the empire intact. However, Megabyzos himself once rebelled when the king’s erratic behavior became too much for him but was pardoned. Artaxerxes followed the policy of religious tolerance practiced by his predecessors. Under his rule, Ezra, a scholarly Jew, returned to Jerusalem in 457 BC with authority to reorganize the judicial and civil service of the province of Judah according to the Mosaic law (Ezra 7:1, 6, 11-26). Also, under him, Nehemiah, another Jew, became governor of Judah and received permission to refortify Jerusalem (Neh. 2:5-8).
Darius II (423-405/04 BC) came to the throne after a short interval, during which Xerxes II, possibly also Sogdianus, ruled briefly before being eliminated by force. Darius II is the last Persian ruler mentioned in the Old Testament, being probably the “Darius the Persian” of Nehemiah 12:22.
Four more rulers followed on the throne of the Achaemenids: Artaxerxes II (405/04-359/58 BC), Artaxerxes III (359/58-338-37 BC), Arses (338/37-336/35 BC), and Darius III (336/35-331 BC). During their reign, the empire lost much of its might and territory, including Egypt, while Macedonia rose to challenge Persian rule. In his fight against Alexander the Great, Darius III lost one battle after another, until a few years later, the whole empire fell into the hands of the young Macedonian. Darius III perished at the hand of his own courtiers as he fled.
The Persian religion of the empire period was the most ethical pagan religion ever developed. Its founder was Zarathustra (Zoroaster). His belief system recognized only one god, Ahura Mazda (or Ormuzd), “the wise lord,” the main principle of everything good and the wise creator spirit who revealed himself in light and fire. The evil principle was embodied in Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the chief of all demons, who opposed by evil all that the god of light created. Since humanity was involved in this fight of the spiritual powers, Zoroaster and his followers had the task of helping to lead the good principle to victory through purity and truth. Every kind of falsehood was despised and to be shunned. By purity, Zoroaster understood health, life, strength, honesty, loyalty, agriculture, cattle breeding, protection of useful animals, and the destruction of vermin, which were considered to be a creation of the evil one. Laziness, dishonesty, or contact with a corpse caused defilement. Zoroaster thus elevated the code of ethics of his people and educated them to become the bearers of a high moral culture, which spread throughout the empire.