Elias Brasil de Souza
A major challenge in the study of the Holy Spirit relates to the dif-ficulties of conceptualizing such a being as a person. In regards to God1 the Father and God the Son, we can construe mental images that help us relate to God on a personal level. And this seems obvious since the images of Father and Son are much more accessible to human understanding and imagination than the concept of Spirit. In addition, the OT portrayal of Yahweh as the Ancient of Days and the Messiah as the Son of Man (e.g., Dan 7:9–14), to mention just a couple examples, provides us with help-ful mental pictures. As for the Spirit of God/Spirit of Yahweh/Holy Spirit, however, the Old Testament uses the elusive term rûaḥ (“wind”) to des-ignate that person of the Godhead. No wonder contemporary Christians tend to treat “the Spirit as a matter of creed and doctrine, but not as a vital experienced reality in believers’ lives.”2
Some biblical scholars seem reluctant to identify glimpses of the Trinity or personality traits of the Spirit of God in the Old Testament, and the Spirit of the Lord tends to be understood as mere manifestation of the power or presence of Yahweh.3 In approaching the topic, this study recognizes not only the inspiration and authority, but also the unity of the Old Testament—and the entire Bible for that matter. An approach to the Old Testament must not ignore the full revelation of the New Testament. As Willen VanGemeren says, “Christian students of the Old Testament must pass by the cross of Jesus Christ on their return to the Old Testament, and as such they can never lose their identity as a Christian.”4
Christians who adopted these hermeneutical foundations have found allusions in the Old Testament to not only the incarnation and the atonement, but also to the doctrine of the trinity (vestigia trinitatis)5. More importantly, as Graham A. Cole has argued, “if Jesus could find himself spoken of in the OT testimony (Luke 24:44–47) and the NT writers could find Christ in the Old Testament (e.g., Paul in 1 Cor. 10:1–4), why cannot the Christian reader find God the Holy Spirit there too?”6
With these brief hermeneutical considerations in mind, let’s examine what the Old Testament has to say about the nature and personhood of the Holy Spirit. Space constraints do not allow an exhaustive and detailed investigation of every single reference to the Holy Spirit in the Old Testament. However, an examination of some passages may provide a glimpse of the main thrust of the Old Testament teaching on this subject.
The Hebrew word translated as Spirit, rûaḥ, also carries the meaning of wind, compass point, breath, disposition, seat of cognition, and volition.7 Most cases of rûaḥ fall under three basic categories designated as meteorological, anthropological, and theological.8 In the meteorological category, rûaḥ refers to the natural phenomenon of wind. In the anthropological category rûaḥ relates to humans—usually carrying the meaning of breath, disposition, or mindset. And in the theological category rûaḥ is used in relation to God, as represented by the expression rûaḥ Yahweh and phrases like “My spirit,” “His spirit,” in which God is the referent of the pronominal suffix. Interestingly, the expression “Holy Spirit” (rûaḥ qādōš) occurs only three times in the Old Testament (Ps 51:13, Isa 63:10–11). In some cases the word rûaḥ occurs without a specific qualification, with the grammatical or literary context indicating that it relates to God. According to one count the term rûaḥ occurs 250 times in the Old Testament to indicate some form of divine action.9 Another author contends that 102 passages make specific reference to the Spirit of God.10
From a semantic perspective, a precise definition of the phrase “Spirit of God” and its functional equivalents poses some challenges. Given its wide range of meanings, rûaḥ can refer to a wind caused by God, the breath of God, God’s attitude or, more specifically, the Spirit of God. In some cases there may be a double meaning. For example: “By the word of the Lord the heavens were made, and all the host of them by the breath (rûaḥ) of His mouth” (Ps 33:6).11 Rûaḥ in this passage apparently refers to the “breath” of God, but the parallel with the “word” in the context of creation may indicate that it is the Spirit of God (cf. Gen 1:2). Furthermore, the Old Testament uses several expressions to describe the Spirit, such as “the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord” (Isa 11:2).
At this juncture, it is instructive to ascertain the semantic connotation of the phrase rûaḥ Yahweh (Spirit of the Lord) and its functional equivalents. We should keep in mind that the Hebrew language conveys the relationship between rûaḥ and Yahweh by means of a grammatical feature that may be designated as a construct relationship. It serves to insert the preposition “of” between two words to build phrases such as God of Israel, love of God, house of God, man of God, etc. The first word is said to be in construct and the second in the absolute or genitive, and both are said to be in a construct relationship. Grammarians have observed that this grammatical construction can convey about fifteen different semantic nuances, such as people of Israel (genitive of apposition), love of God (subjective genitive), house of God (genitive of possession), or man of God (genitive of relation).12
So the question emerges as to what semantic connotation can be discerned in the phrase “Spirit of the Lord” or “Spirit of God.” Admittedly, there is no simple answer. Different contexts may convey distinct connotations. But this study suggests that in this grammatical construction the idea of relation is the one that mainly characterizes the phrase “Spirit of the Lord.” This can be illustrated and explained with expressions such as “my son” or “servant of the Lord,” which do not connote either possession or apposition (etc.), but “involve either kinship or other social structures.”13 Thus the phrase “Spirit of the Lord/God” conveys the idea that the Spirit stands in relationship with the Lord.14
In regards to the syntactic context in which the term Spirit (rûaḥ) occurs, its collocation with the verb and other grammatical elements of the clause calls for some consideration. The following represent the main syntactic functions of rûaḥ.
First, as subject/agent of the clause the Spirit (rûaḥ) hovers over the waters in creation (Gen 1:2), overpowers or takes possession of people (Judg 14:6, 19; 15:4; 1 Sam 10:6, 10; 11:6; 16:13; 18:10), falls upon them (Ezek 11:5), rests over the Messiah (Isa 11:2), lifts up a standard against the enemies of God’s people (Isa 59:19), gives rest (Isa 63:14), moves in a specific direction (Ezek 1:12, 20), enters the prophet (Ezek 2:2, 3:24), carries the prophet from one place to another (1 Kgs 18:12; 2 Kgs 2:16; Ezek 3:12, 14; 8:3; 11:1, 24; 43:5), departs from people (1 Sam 16:14), passes from one person to another (1 Kgs 22:24; 2 Chron 18:23), comes into the slain and gives them life (Ezek 37:9), dwells in the midst of the people (Hag 2:5), gives understanding (Job 32:8), creates the human being (Job 33:4), gives life (Job 33:4), and gathers the wild animals to occupy the land of Edom (Isa 34:16). When the Spirit of the Lord breathes, the grass withers, the flower fades, indicating, in context, that the judgment of Israel was brought about by the Lord (Isa 40:6). In nominal sentences the Spirit is said to be on the Servant-Messiah (Isa 61:1). Micah asks a rhetorical question: “Is the Spirit of the Lord restricted?” (Mic 2:7). Such occurrences show the agency and hint at the personality of the Spirit of God.
Second, as object/patient of a verbal action the Spirit can be poured upon the people (Isa 32:15, 44:3; Ezek 39:29, Joel 3:1–2; Zech 12:10, Prov 1:23), put upon the servant (Isa 42:1), sent forth (Ps 104:30), grieved (Isa 63:10), put within the people (Isa 63:11; Ezek 11:19, 36:26–27; 37:6, 14), gathered (Ps 51:11), and collected (Job 34:14), which underscores the distinc-tiveness/separateness of the Spirit of God. Noteworthy in this context is Isaiah’s rhetorical question: “Who has directed the Spirit of the Lord, or as His counselor has taught Him?” (Isa 40:13).
Third, as indirect object and in prepositional phrases it may be noted that Ezekiel is commanded to prophesy to the Spirit (Ezek 37:9). The psalmist asks: “Where can I go from your Spirit? Or where can I flee from your presence?” (Ps 139:7).
Fourth, adverbially the Spirit functions as the instrument through which the Lord takes action to clean and purify the sins of his people (Isa 4:4), transport the prophet (Ezek 37:1), restore God’s people (Zech 4:6), send His law and His Word (Zech 7:12), create the heavens (Ps 33:6), and adorn the heavens (Job 26:13).
Fifth, as a vocative, Ezekiel summons the Spirit to breath on the slain so that they may live (Ezek 37:9).
In some passages the Spirit of Yahweh appears as being identified with Yahweh Himself. In an oracle against Samaria, Isaiah states, “In that day the LORD of hosts will be for a crown of glory and a diadem of beauty to the remnant of His people, for a spirit of justice (rûaḥ mišpāṭ) to him who sits in judgment, and for strength to those who turn back the battle at the gate” (Isa 28:5–6). As presented here, the Spirit does not appear to be portrayed as an external agent, but as “the Lord himself whose presence is manifested by the gift of this new spirit in men.”15
In a subsequent passage, Isaiah affirms that “the Egyptians are men, and not God; and their horses are flesh, and not spirit” (Isa 31:3), which implies that the term “spirit” refers to the incomparable quality of Yahweh in contrast to Egyptian military power.16 In a few constructions with rûḥî (my spirit) and rûḥô (his spirit), the referent of rûaḥ cannot be separated from Yahweh: “‘Woe to the rebellious children,’ says the LORD, ‘Who take counsel, but not of Me, And who devise plans, but not of My Spirit (rûḥî), that they may add sin to sin’“ (Isa 30:1). Another verse also equates the Spirit with Yahweh: “Search from the book of Yahweh, and read: Not one of these shall fail; not one shall lack her mate. For my mouth has commanded it, and His Spirit has gathered them” (Isa 34:16). The following text is interesting: “The grass withers, the flower fades, because the breath [Spirit] of Yahweh blows upon it” (Isa 40:7). Again the Spirit is the breath of the Lord—that is, it is not portrayed as a personality distinct from Yahweh.
If one were to draw an understanding of the nature of the Spirit of Yahweh from these passages alone, the result could be a modalistic view of God. However, there are more texts that need to be brought to bear on these considerations, as noted below.
In a study published in 1960, Aubrey Johnson spoke of the Spirit as an extension of the personality of Jehovah and thus pointed to the personal dimension of the Spirit of Yahweh in some passages.17 Another scholar, in an attempt to understand the distinction between the Spirit and the Lord, said that the Spirit acts as the “alter ego” of Yahweh, or as an “agent/agency through which God exercises sovereign control over individuals.”18
In some passages the Spirit appears as intimately connected with the Lord, albeit distinct from Him. Isaiah 48:16b says, “And now the Lord God and His Spirit have sent Me” (Isa 48:16). The exegetical challenges of this text have led some commentators to speculate that the passage is textually corrupt or has undergone some editorial addition.19 One difficulty has to do with the subject of the clause. Since Yahweh is clearly the subject of the previous clause, presumably He should be the subject of the second clause. If so, Yahweh Himself would be saying, “the Lord God and His Spirit Have sent Me.” The best solution for this crux is to see here the introduction of another character: the Servant of the Lord.20 The other exegetical challenge is to ascertain the role of the expression “his Spirit.” From a grammatical perspective, the Spirit could be a displaced subject and together with the Lord could function as the agent of the action of “sending.” Yet a more plausible solution from a grammatical perspective and the larger context of Isaiah is to understand the Spirit as the object of the action of sending. If so, it is the Lord who sends the Spirit together with the Servant. That being the case, a distinction between the Lord and the Spirit clearly emerges in this passage.
In Isaiah 63:10–11 the Spirit again appears to be distinct from Yahweh. Alluding to the exodus, Isaiah states: “But they rebelled and grieved His Holy Spirit; So He turned Himself against them as an enemy, and He fought against them. Then he remembered the days of old, Moses and his people, saying: ‘Where is He who brought them up out of the sea with the shepherd of His flock? Where is He who put His Holy Spirit within them.’“ This passage reveals an intriguing distinction between Yahweh and the Spirit and portrays the Spirit as a personal agent vigorously leading the history of Israel. The Spirit is not a mere expression of God’s character, or simply a trait of divine personality, but a person distinct from Yahweh.21 As John Oswalt says, “the understanding of the Holy Spirit here and in v. 11 is close to the fully developed NT concept of the third person of the Trinity.”22 The fact that the Spirit can be “grieved” points to a personal dimension in the nature of the Spirit. The verbal root (‘āṣab), which underlies the word translated as “grieved,” occurs fifteen times in the Old Testament and belongs to the semantic field of attitudes and emotions.23 This term always occurs in connection with a personal being, whether God or human.24 As Edward Young aptly says, “The fact that Israel grieved the Spirit shows that the Spirit is a Person; how can one grieve an impersonal spirit? Here the Spirit is set forth as the object of the people’s action. Furthermore, as the Spirit is joined with the Lord here, so in the previous verse the angel was joined with Him (cf. Ps 78:17, 40). Here, then, the Spirit of holiness is distinguished from the Lord in its personal existence, just as the angel is in the previous verse. The Spirit is here distinguished as a Person by the fact that He can be grieved and so feel grief.”25
Ezekiel, called “the prophet of the Spirit,”26 provides significant perceptions on the nature of the Spirit of the Lord. The first reference to the Spirit in Ezekiel appears in the introductory vision, where the Hebrew term rûaḥ seems to describe a wind or force that impels the glory of Yahweh, which is moving from the north to the temple. The text says: “Then I looked, and behold, a whirlwind [rûaḥ sĕ‘ārâ] was coming out of the north, a great cloud with raging fire engulfing itself; and brightness was all around it and radiating out of its midst like the color of amber, out of the midst of the fire” (Ezek 1:4). The term underlying the word “whirlwind” is indefinite in Hebrew and has been rendered by most versions in a meteorological sense, hence the translation “whirlwind.”
However, we should note that the term rûaḥ appears three more times in the first chapter of Ezekiel. And it is significant that in these occurrences the word rûaḥ is made definite by the article. Speaking of the movement of the living beings who accompanied the glory of Yahweh and the wheels that made up that scenario, Ezekiel states that “they went wherever the spirit wanted to go” (Ezek 1:12). “Wherever the spirit wanted to go, they went, because there the spirit went; and the wheels were lifted together with them, for the spirit of the living creatures [rûaḥ haḥayyâ] was in the wheels. When those went, these went; when those stood, these stood; and when those were lifted up from the earth, the wheels were lifted up together with them, for the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels” (Ezek 1:21–22). From a grammatical point of view the presence of these anaphoric expressions has the function of pointing to the locution rûaḥ sĕ’ārâ; that is, the spirit that moved the wheels and impelled the living beings should be identified with the rûaḥ introduced in Ezekiel 1:4. Thus, the “whirlwind” (rûaḥ sĕ’ārâ) may be interpreted as an image of the Spirit of Yahweh.
In Ezekiel’s vision, it becomes evident that the spirit that controls the movement of the living creatures and the wheels in the context of the glory of Yahweh cannot be simply a “whirlwind”—a meteorological phenomenon—but the same Spirit of the Lord. Interestingly, the rûaḥ mentioned in Ezekiel 1:21 appears with a qualification: “The spirit of the living being” (rûaḥ haḥayyâ). The same expression reappears later where it refers to the movement of the cherubim and wheels. The text says “when the cherubim stood still, the wheels stood still, and when one was lifted up, the other lifted itself up, for the spirit of the living creature [rûaḥ haḥayyâ] was in them” (Ezek 10:17). According to Block, “the term must be understood as ‘the spirit of life’—that is, the divine animating principle.”27
In general, the picture displayed in Ezekiel suggests a very close connection between the Spirit and Yahweh; it is the Spirit who controls, directs, and enlivens the living creatures and the wheels that carry the glory of the Lord. However, there is also a subtle distinction between the Lord and the Spirit, because when the glory of Yahweh entered the precincts of the temple to perform the investigative judgment of Judah,28 the transport infrastructure controlled by the Spirit—the cherubim and the wheels—remained at the entrance of the temple. This suggests that the Spirit is conceived as a separate entity in the vision.
Another aspect of the activity of the Spirit in Ezekiel, closely linked to the passages discussed above, concerns the transportation of the prophet from one place to another. The Spirit takes Ezekiel to meet with the exiles in Babylon (Ezek 3:14–15) and brings him back to Jerusalem to the inner courtyard of the temple (Ezek 8:3), then leads the prophet to the east gate of the temple (Ezek 11:1) to observe the depressing departure of the cherubim, and again takes Ezekiel to the exiles (Ezek 11:24). Worthy of note in each of these texts is the fact that the term rûaḥ carries no article. The absence of the article might suggest at first glance that these occurrences of rûaḥ would be just a wind that carries the prophet from one place to another. Yet, in Ezekiel 11:5 the term rûaḥ appears unequivocally qualified: rûaḥ YHWH (Spirit of the Lord). “Then the Spirit of the Lord fell upon me, and said to me, ‘Speak! “Thus says the Lord: ‘Thus you have said, O house of Israel; for I know the things that come into your mind.’ “ ‘ “(Ezek 11:5). In Ezekiel 37:1 the Spirit takes Ezekiel to a valley of dry bones: “The hand of the Lord came upon me and brought me out in the Spirit of the Lord, and set me down in the midst of the valley; and it was full of bones” (Ezek 37:1). These verses clarify that the Spirit who carries Ezekiel from one place to another in the visions in which rûaḥ is mentioned is the Spirit of Yahweh.
Finally, we should also note that the Spirit speaks to Ezekiel, which shows another personal trait of the Spirit. In the vision of the dry bones the Lord commands the prophet: “Prophesy to the Spirit, prophesy, son of man, and say to the Spirit, ‘Thus says the Lord God: “Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe on these slain, that they may live” ‘“ (Ezek 37:9). Again, these references to the Spirit in Ezekiel point to a distinction between the Spirit and Yahweh. In other words: “The spirit is an entity external to God and that can be called by him”29
From the study undertaken above, it follows that the Spirit of the Lord as portrayed in the Old Testament is a divine and personal being. In some passages the Spirit seems to be a manifestation of the Lord; in others, the Spirit appears as a distinct personality and acts independently of the Lord. In other words, while some texts appear to equate the Spirit with Yahweh, others make a distinction between the Spirit and the Lord Himself. This seeming ambivalence in the depictions of the Spirit seems to convey two major aspects of the Spirit’s nature. On one hand, the Spirit shares the very nature of the Lord inasmuch as He is identified with the Lord. On the other hand, the Spirit emerges as a personal entity distinct from the Lord, which conveys the notion of plurality within the Godhead. Therefore, these two groups of texts offer complementary perceptions of the nature of the Spirit of God.
That said, we should keep in mind that the nature of the Holy Spirit as outlined in the Old Testament resists simplifications and precise definitions. Although the Spirit is an omnipresent character in the text and history of the Old Testament, the precise contours of this being remain mysterious as the very term used for His designation, rûaḥ (wind), indicates. But despite the challenges and complexities of the topic, it becomes clear that the foundations of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit are clearly laid out in the Hebrew Scriptures.
To conclude, three major points summarize the study undertaken above. First, the Holy Spirit appears in some texts in close relationship with the Lord and as a manifestation of the Lord’s presence, which indicates that the Holy Spirit is God. Second, the Spirit emerges in other texts as a personality distinct from Yahweh, which indicates a plurality of persons within the Godhead. Third, the Spirit of the Lord is portrayed with some fundamental characteristics of personhood, which shows that the Holy Spirit is not only a force or influence but a personal being.
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1 For the sake of variety, the terms God, Lord, and Yahweh are used interchangeably throughout this chapter.
2 Gordon D. Fee, Paul, the Spirit, and the People of God (Peabody, MA.: Hendrickson, 1996), 37.
3 See, e.g., the statement by Thomas W. R. Longstaff, The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 1178, who argues that “attempts to trace the origins [of the doctrine of the Trinity] still earlier (to the OT literature) cannot be supported by historical-critical scholarship, and these attempts must be understood as retrospective interpretations of this earlier corpus of Scripture in the light of later theological developments.” See also John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology: Israel’s Gospel (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 1:795, who says that “God’s spirit stands for God’s dynamic energy and freedom.”
4 Willem VanGemeren, The Progress of Redemption: The Story of Salvation from Creation to the New Jerusalem (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1988), 21.
5 Reginaldo H. Fuller, “The Vestigia Trinitatis in the Old Testament,” in The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders, eds. Craig A. Evans and Shemaryahu Talmon (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 499–508.
6 Graham Cole, He Who Gives Life: The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2007), 109.
7 M. V. Van Pelt, W. C. Kaiser, Jr., and D. I. Block, “רוּחַ (rûaḥ),” in New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology & Exegesis, ed. Willem VanGemeren (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1998), 3:1073–1075.
8 Daniel I. Block, “Empowered by the Spirit of God: The Holy Spirit in the Historiographic Writings of the Old Testament,” Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 1:1 (1997), 40–54.
9 J. Reiling, “Holy Spirit,” eds. Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (Leiden; Boston; Köln; Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge; Brill: Eerdmans, 1999), 418.
10 Genesis 1:2; 41:38; Exodus 15:8, 10; 28:3; 31:3; 35:31; Numbers 11:17, 25–26, 29; 24:2; 27:18; Deuteronomy 34:9; Judges 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Samuel 10:6, 10; 11:6; 16:13–14; 19:20, 23; 2 Samuel 22:16; 23:2; 1 Kings 18:12; 22:24; 2 Kings 2:16; 1 Chronicles 12:18; 2 Chronicles 15:1; 18:23; 20:14; 24:20; Nehemiah 9:20, 30; Job 4:9; 26:13; 32:8; 33:4; 34:14; Psalm 18:15; 33:6; 51:11; 104:30; 139:7; 143:10; 147:18; Isaiah 4:4; 11:2, 15; 27:8; 30:1, 28; 31:3; 32:15; 34:16; 40:13; 42:1; 44:3; 48:16; 59:21; 61:1; 63:10–11, 14; Ezekiel 1:12, 20–21; 2:2; 3:12, 14, 24; 8:3; 10:17; 11:1, 5, 24; 36:27; 37:1, 14; 39:29; 43:5; Daniel 4:5–6, 15; 5:11, 14; Hosea 9:7; 13:15; Joel 2:28–29; Micah 2:7; 3:8; Haggai 2:5; Zechariah 4:6; 6:8; 7:2. Lloyd Neve, The Spirit of God in the Old Testament (Tokyo: Seibunsha, 1972), 3–4.
11 Biblical passages follow the New King James Version.
12 Bruce K. Waltke and Michael Patrick O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 141–155
13 Ibid., 145.
14 Bruce K. Waltke, “Micah,” in The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary, ed. Thomas E. McComiskey (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), 667.
15 George T. Montague, The Holy Spirit: Growth of a Biblical Tradition (New York: Paulist Press, 1976), 39.
16 Wonsuk Ma, Until the Spirit Comes: The Spirit of God in the Book of Isaiah, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement, Series 271, eds. David J. A. Clines and Philip R. Davies (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 67.
17 Aubrey R. Johnson, The One and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961), 14–16
18 Pelt, Kaiser, and Block, 1075.
19 See H. C. Leupold, Exposition of Isaiah, H. C. Leupold Commentary Collection (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1971), 169.
20 Klaus Baltzer and Peter Machinist, Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 40–55, Hermeneia: a Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2001), 3; Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2002), 7:466.
21 Andre Zysk, Exegetische Arbeit zum Geist Gottes im Alten Testament anhand ausgewählter Bibelstellen aus dem Buch Jesaja, Ezechiel, Haggai und Nehemia (Munich: GRIN Verlag, 2007), 9.
22 John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 40–66, New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 607–608.
23 James Swanson, Dictionary of Biblical Languages With Semantic Domains: Hebrew (Old Testament), electronic ed. (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997), s.v. “שׁוּב”
24 Genesis 6:6; 34:7; 45:5; 1 Samuel 20:3; 20:34; 2 Samuel 19:3; 1 Kings 1:6; 1 Chronicles 4:10; Nehemiah 8:10–11; Psalm 56:6; 78:40; Ecclesiastes 10:9; Isaiah 54:6; 63:10.
25 Edward Young, The Book of Isaiah: Volume 3, Chapters 40–66 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1972), 482.
26 Daniel I. Block, “The Prophet of the Spirit: The Use of Ruah in the Book of Ezekiel,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 32:1 (1989), 37.
27 Ibid., 36–37.
28 See William H. Shea, “The Investigative Judgment of Judah” in The Sanctuary and the Atonement, eds. Arnold Wallenkampf and Richard Lesher (Washington, DC: Biblical Research Institute, 1981), 283–291.
29 Block, 38.